Roy E. Howard, Ph.D.
Gallup Graduate Studies Center, Western New Mexico University, retired
e-mail | Vita

Samples of Navajo music transcriptions by Roy E. Howard:

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |

Go to Presentation on Continuum of Native American Music

There are many styles of Indian music throughout North and South America. The cultures of the south had a very distinct development from those of the north. Then, for the past 400 years, the cultures of the Indians have blended so thoroughly with the European and African cultures, that a distinction of musical style that is strictly Indian cannot accurately be described for the Indians of Mexico and further south.
On the other hand, the isolation of the North American Indian peoples had tended to preserve language, religion, and music in a form that can be studied and appreciated today much as it existed in antiquity. However, a single style cannot be described. Nearly 1000 tribal groups speaking almost that many different languages in 50-60 different language families make it difficult to categorize the music. However, many common traits can be found.

Common Traits

1. Purpose. Music is rarely performed for its own sake, but is usually associated with a specific activity or rite such as ceremonies for treating the sick, bringing success in battle, at the time of death, passage to the next age group, games, gambling, dancing, courtship, children's songs, dreams, and visions.
2. Style. Most is vocal with simple percussion accompaniment. Most is monophonic, that is, melody only without the polyphony and part singing of European style music. Men usually have the lead in singing and often use strident, harsh, tense tones.
3. Scale. The scales used are not those common to the European style. Scales used in order of frequency are: the pentatonic, hexatonic and tetratonic. Most tribes also have simple 2 or 3 note melodies for children and for gambling. Samples of scales (or similar intervals from another starting pitch, using accidentals)
pentatonic: c d f g a
hexatonic: c d e f g a
tetratonic: e d c b or a g f e
4. Instruments. Although the African, European and Oriental cultures each developed varying types of string, wind and percussion instruments, and wind instruments were common in South America, only some tribes used flutes in North America. Most instruments fall into these categories:
rattles in a wide variety of styles and purposes
bells of different sizes
drums beaten with sticks
flutes, used by some tribes to double the voice part or in courtship
bull roarers
5. Composing and performing. Many believe that music comes from the spirits. It already exists, the composer unravels them. They are often given in dreams or visions. The medicine man does most of the composing and performing. Men usually take the lead in performing.

Regional Styles

1. Eskimo - NW Coast styles. Complex rhythms, especially in the drum parts. Melodies often use very small intervals such as minor seconds (half steps). The Klinkets of Alaska use melody and harmony inspired by contacts with the Russians.
2. California - Yuman area. Phrases are short, sometimes with repeated sections alternating with a section of higher pitch.
3. Great Basin - Nevada, Utah, Northern California. Melodic form is aabb (each phrase is repeated).
4. Plains-Pueblo. Harsh, tense, pulsating vocal technique. Descending, terrace-like melodic movement. Melodic form has a stanza consisting of two sections that are identical except that the second is an incomplete repetition of the first. Pueblo music is far more complex than Plains.
5. Eastern Tribes. Similar to Plains-Pueblo, but occasionally use responsorial singing (their group repeats after the lead singer as in much of the African music). Also has more regular rhythmic units with some isorhythmic structure (regular repetition of a set of time values).
6. Athabascan (Apache and Navajo). Simple rhythms, usually with two note values (eighth, quarter). The singing style is slightly nasal and relatively free of pulsations. Often prefer a high vocal register. They use intervals approximating thirds more often than other regions. The range of the melodies varies from a fifth to a large range. Some songs alternate between phrases using a low, repeated note with one using a flowing melody sung in a high, strident falsetto.

Text

Most Indian poetry is sung. Song texts use verbal structures that are not common to spoken language. Many songs have the words surrounded by syllables for words that are borrowed, foreign or meaningless. In this way, the singer is constantly adding both rhythm and melody,thus fulfilling both the vocal, and the instrumental roles as used in music of other cultures. For example, most of the music of the US today has rests and long held notes during which the accompanying instruments have a predominant role. the Indian musician does those fills with his voice. For some types of songs, the words can go with only the original melody. Some tribes don't mind putting the words with various different melodies.

Modern Indian Music

Most cultures undergo a continual evolution or development of musical style as well as styles of speech and dress and other customs. In modern popular music, for example, we can easily distinguish between the styles of music of the 1940's. Swing with the big bands and the 1950's Rock with the guitar bands. The disco music of the 1970's bars little resemblance to either. It seems strange to an outsider looking in, at first glance, that the Indian cultures seem not to have been affected by and evolution in musical style.
Highly urban societies such as the Aztecs, Mayas, Incas, Germans, English, Japanese, etc., made possible the practice of specialization of trades and leisure time activities. Art, science, literature and music developed and changed at a fast rate. In the pastoral and nomadic cultures of North America, small tribal units depended on the spiritual leaders to preserve the most sacred traditions of the group. Included in these sacred and special categories was music. Today, most of the music of the various tribes is sacred or is derived from sacred traditions. The tribes are reluctant to share sacred traditions with others and hold tightly to the old traditions, especially the music in the face of drastic changes in their way of life brought on by the encroaching towns and schools of the White man. The 1960's and 1970's saw a particularly strong resurgence of interest in the preservation of such traditions.
Pan-Indian Movement. One organized attempt at preservation of traditions is the inter-tribal, Pan-Indian Movement. The tribes use this vehicle as a way to maintain a separate identity from the other American cultures and to develop a sense of larger community with one another. The underlying philosophy seems to be that Indian culture can best be preserved by the merging of tribal differences. This 20th Century music is for general use and entertainment. The style is a mixture of the various tribes with a strong Plains influence. Some English words are used. The songs are designed for a mixed audience for entertainment, not ceremony.
Peyote music. A new pan-indian religion has developed, blending Indian and Christian traditions. The new music that is part of this movement is a more complex version of the Plains form, together with the Athabascan rhythm with a rapid accompaniment of drum and rattle and a high, whining style.
Powwow. The intertribal tradition of the Powwow is a social event and a competition. Performers of dance and song from various tribes gather for this entertaining event. Traditional music and dress give all participants a feeling of community, even with the differences in language and custom. After the competitions, all attending can join in group dances.
Preferences by purchasers. Although the activities and compositions of the professionals in music can tell us much about the culture, the best indicator of the preferences of the people is the market place. Most sub-cultures eventually adopt customs common to the major culture around them. In the case of the Indian people of the Southwest, the biggest record sales are for Country and ester, Gospel, and Peyote music. One interesting phenomenon is that the Indians tend to prefer Gospel music recorded by groups of their own tribe.

Influence of Indian music on art music

Since the White man's earliest contact with the Indians, he has been interested and intrigued by their music. Composers of even symphonic music have used Indian themes and melodies in their works. The following is a sample list.

Edward MacDowell. "2nd Orchestral (Indian) Suite 1896"
C. C. Skilton. "Two Indian Dances and Suite Primeval"
C. W. Cadman. "Thunderbird Suite" and other works
Frederick Jacobi. "Indian Dances"
C. T. Griffes. "Two Sketches on Indian Themes"
Victor Herbert. "Natoma" (opera)
H. W. Loomis, Arthur Farwel, Thurlow Lawrence, Carlos Troyer, Henry F. Gilbert and many others. European composers too, have been impressed and influenced by the beautiful Indian melodies.
Antonin Dvorák. "From the New World" Symphony
F. B. Busoni. "Indianisches Tagebuch"

Especially watch for recordings by Louis Ballard, a contemporary Cherokee Indian composer of modern works using traditional instruments and modes. (Institute of American Arts, Santa Fe).

Publishers of Historical Indian Music

Frances Densmore for the Bureau of American Ethnology
Alice C. Fletcher, Theodore Baker, Benjamin Ives Gilman (early researchers and publishers)
Willard Rhodes, recordings and studies
David P. Mc Allister, Southwest, especially Navajo
Gertrude P. Kurath, dance
Helen H. Roberts, relates musical styles to geographical areas

Powwows

The Plains tribes during the 18th ad 19th centuries had developed numerous warrior organizations and societies. Each of these societies, such as the Strong Hearts "Cante Tinza", and the Foxes “Tokala” of the Sioux, had its own songs, dance and dress regulations, and ritual paraphernalia. Each sponsored dances and feasts for its own members and for members of other societies.

		Recording Companies Publishing Indian Music
		by Lynn Huenemann, NCC, 1982
American Indian SoundChief			Rhythm of the Redman
1415 Carlson Drive			11 Hospital St.
P.O. Box 1627			Chemawa, OR 97306
Klamath Falls, OR 97601
			Songs of the Redman
Canyon Records			506 Washington Ave.
4143 North Sixteenth Str.			Box 1686
Phoenix, AZ 85016			Lawton, OK 73501
Everest Records			Soundchief's Enterprise
10920 Wilshire Blvd.			1405 Taylor Ave.
Los Angeles, CA 90024			Lawton, OK 73501
Folkways Records and Service Corp.			Tom Tom Records
701 Seventh Avenue			San Juan Pueblo
New York, NY			San Juan, NM
Indian House			Taylor Museum
Box 472			30 West Dale St.
Taos, NM 87571			Colorado Springs, CO 80903
Indian Records and Supplies			Waltiska
Box 47			P.O. Box 243
Fay, OK 73646			Albuquerque, NM 87103
Iroqrafts			New World Records
RR No. 10			3 East 54th Street
Ohseken, Ontario, Canada			New York, NY 10022
Library of Congress			Native American Music
Music Division, Recording Lab			K.D. Edwards
Washington, DC 20540			Box 10542
			Midwest City, OK 73110

Historically, social dancing was in preparation or celebration of some particular event such as a hunt or military expedition. Only eligible society members took part. Certain dance styles, movements, and costume pieces were restricted to those who had earned or inherited the privilege of using them. Women's participation in this dancing was usually limited to modestly bobbing up and down to the beat at the edge or outside of the dance area.

During the latter part of the 19th Century when the various tribes were defeated and placed on reservations, the warrior societies declined in importance and number. At the same time, intertribal contact was spreading the "Omaha Dance". This dance was similar ;to the basic warrior dances of some Plains groups, but was used as a social dance with minimal restrictions. Gradually a general "powwow" type of dance spread in which even women took an active part. However, in Oklahoma many Poncas and Osages and others still carry on the "hethuska" warrior society traditions and songs and dance regulations. The Kiowa people also observe the restrictions on women's and men's dance style during the first and last nights of the annual Ohoma powwow.

A powwow today is a get together by the people of one or more tribes to dance, visit, and watch. The main purpose is social, but many civil ceremonies are still included. These include honoring a veteran with honor songs, giving a person an Indian name, receiving a family back into public life following a period of official mourning, and others. The main dance of the powwow is called the war dance, grass dance, Omaha dance, and according to the style, the straight or fancy dance. Different dance styles call for different costuming.

Teaching Indian Music in the Schools

Purpose. To teach principles of good music using high quality examples. To teach appreciation for the good in all peoples. To teach the students that Indian music is as worthwhile and good as any other music. To teach an appreciation for the people that perform the music, including those around them such as the teaching assistants, janitors, helpers, visitors, bus drivers, parents, etc.

Problems. Indian children may be reluctant to sing the songs of their own heritage in class. The majority of the songs may come from ceremonies and sacred rites that they are justly reluctant to share with others outside the proper time and place. Many songs have particular taboos such as the season of the year. A song that may be good in the classroom in January may be strictly forbidden in April. The children may also be reluctant because they are not used to hearing any of their own language in class. They may not know how to react if the teacher is not of their tribe. Some types of instruments may even be restricted. Before making, using, or even talking about the instruments, check to be sure it is acceptable to the community. For example, in a Navajo community, it would be sacrilegious for anyone besides the medicine man to make or use the traditional clay pot drum, or rattles from a certain gourd.

Solutions. Teach the music of the predominant and surrounding cultures. Use resource people from the community. Teach popular dance songs and fun songs. Use new words. Have the local people teach the songs. Keep objectives clear. Teach language skills, culture attitudes and characteristics, musical principles, and values. Reinforce heritage by learning words, music, singers, purposes, uses. Students should know who they are and where they came from and how they fit into the society around them and that other cultures than their own have value.

Navajo Music in Tradition

Whereas other Indians danced, the Navajo sang. Navajo ceremonies were called "sings" and the songs were said to have great power. The most important sings could last up to ten days.

Ceremonies are also social gatherings. They are usually held in October and November when the harvest is over and the sheep are fat from summer pastures. When a "sing" is to be held, messengers are sent to every place where Navajo are know to be living. Those invited come in great numbers and stay throughout the whole time. Food is provided by those giving the ceremony.

Every ceremony has its own legend that explains why it is done. The songs are sung in the ceremonial hogan, and only those directly concerned are allowed inside. For the visitors there are traditional games, horse racing, dances and of course, feasting.

"All is beautiful, beautiful indeed," he said. "Above and around and below me, their is beauty. I walk in beauty". The people listened and knew this was so.
One of the most important ceremonies was and still is the Yei Bei Cheii, in which the masked dancers appear on the last night. The Fire Dance is another important winter rite. It is now sometimes called Mountain Way Dance. During this ceremony, dancers race about with fire brands and strike at each other as they dance. Feats of magic are also performed. Plants grow from a seed and blossom. Men swallow fire and arrows. The effect of the strange singing and dancing in the flickering firelight is not soon forgotten.

In the Navajo universe, there are two classes of beings, or personal forces; human and the Holy People. Holy, in that they are powerful and mysterious. The Navajo belief is that the universe functions according to certain rules. If one learns these rules and lives in accordance with them, he will keep safe or be restored to safety. Ceremonies held to restore the sick or for cleansing may involve the family only plus the extended family of the same clan, and perhaps some close personal friends. The medicine man who conducts that particular kind of ceremony is contacted well in advance. Each medicine man is known for his specialty and may be booked for months in advance. Fees of a few hundred, up to $1,000 (1970s) may be charged by the medicine man according to the lengthy of the ceremony, the special equipment needed and the number of assistants, singers and dances needed. A medicine man apprentices for the job from his early youth. The selection of apprentices is made from among the brightest young boys. In tradition, all men fit into one of the following specialties within the tribe: hunter, warrior, philosopher, family man. Although each may perform functions in more than one category, each was know and respected for his specialty.

Example of a Traditional Sing

Carrying a sacred fawn skin, the talking god leads the performers in the Yei Bei Cheii dance, or Night Chant. This is a winter curing ceremony of the Navajo people that can only be held after the snakes are asleep and there is no more likelihood of lightning.

The dancers in the Night Chant pose as supernatural beings called Yei's. On the last night of the nine day ritual, the Yei's dance and chant around giant bonfires, singing in mysterious sounding falsetto voices. Their shadowy figures cause bizarre shapes in the flickering firelight.

The Yei masks can be light blue or shades of brown or gray, but the talking god's mask is white. The white feathers on the dancer's heads are tipped with black. Their bodies are painted with white clay, and their clothing can be any combination of colors. Some of them wear ruffs around their necks made from fir tree sprigs. The dancers all have a fox pelt attached to the back of their belts, but the talking god does not.

During the ceremony, the dancers remove their masks so the children can see that they are really human beings who only play the part of supernatural figures.

Educators who wish to discuss the Yei Bei Cheii and other sacred ceremonies in class, or play samples of the music, should consult with local Navajos about restrictions. The winter ceremonies should not be taught to the children, particularly with the original words. New words can be used to the tune of sacred songs with discretion. The recorded music should be played with reverence and the proper attitude, only during the appropriate season.


Thoughts on Classroom Music

Most Navajo songs are by and for adults. Few songs are made specifically for children. Other tribes, such as the Hopi and Pueblo who live in villages where children play together have more children's songs. The Navajo way of life with the individual homes spread far apart precludes the tendency for children's songs to be developed or passed on.

Many Navajo songs, that are not ceremonial are used to accompany work, such as the corn grinding songs, or are sung by a group while riding, or are used with games and dances or in gambling. Many songs that are now used for entertainment were derived from ceremonies or sacred traditions. It is a curiosity or an irritation to many Navajos that non-Navajos would want to know anything about these, let alone learn how to sing them.

Most schools and teachers do not teach songs in Navajo or traditional dance styles to children. Since some do, it is clear that there is a way that it can be done within the constraints of tradition. Since music in traditional styles and languages can contribute to the goal to preserve language and culture, and promotes language development and school success, it is a worthy goal to teach more teachers the songs and dances. Let us work together to identify and teach that which is appropriate for the schools.

Continuum of Navajo Music for Schools

If some songs, such as ceremonial songs, are not appropriate for the schools, how can a teacher decide what range of song types can be used? The continuum is a range placing historical ceremonial songs such as the Yeii Bicheii on the left, and Navajo translations from church hymn books on the right. Indian musicians are doing today what they have always done, integrating available materials, topics, and technologies into their creative work. It may be appropriate for students and teachers to follow their example and use combinations of traditions in new creative works. However, historical and traditional melodies with traditional or new words in Navajo may be more appropriate to teach Navajo language and culture than Euro-tradition nursery rhymes translated into Navajo because the style of instruments and singing carry the deep structure of the culture. The purpose of the continuum is to assist teachers in making decisions about music based upon the potential outcome of the musical experience.

Some Sources

"Navajo Music", Ed: Marjorie Thomas, Eleanor Frazier. Instructor, Charley Toledo.
Dine Bi'ó¬ta' Association. Language and Culture Summer Workshop, Rough Rock Demonstration School, Chinle, AZ, 1973. Words and recorded music, printed music.
"Navajo Music for Classroom Enrichment". Two records plus teachers book with words.
Lynn Hueneman, Navajo Community College. box 243, Tsaile, AZ, 86556.

		Navajo Music and Dance
		Lynn Hueneman, 1982, NCC
Diné Bi'ólta' Association			Discovering American Indian Music
Navajo Curriculum Center			Bailey Film Associates
Navajo Division of Education			2211 Michigan Ave
Fort Defiance, Arizona 86504			Santa Monica, CA
Diné Biyiin Bidahoo'aahigii			Navajo Night Dances
DBA 1971 Summer Workshop			Coronet Films
with Douglas Mitchell
			Spirit of the Navajo
DBA Winter Workshop			Center for Mass Communication
Navajo Shoe Game Songs			Columbia University Press
With Charlie Toledo			1125 Amasterdam Ave
DBA, 1973			New York, NY 10025
DBA Summer Workshop 1973			Navajo Dancers
ÍÍch'oshi, Joo'ashi, hi yadaa nei			Chief Hailstorm Productions
and Naash noodahi
with Charlie Toledo			Painting with Sand, a Navajo Ceremony
			University of Washington
Navajo Music for the Classroom			A-V Center
DBA 1974 Summer Workshop			Seattle, WA 98105
with Mae A. Bekis
DBA 1970 Summer Workshop			Navajo films
from Navajo Curricuum Center,			Blanding Indian Education Curriculum Center
Rough Rock Demonstration School			P.O. Box 431
Chinle, AZ 86503			Blanding, UT 84511
				Round Dance
Navajo Music for Classroom Enrichment				Coyote and Skunk
with Dollie Yazzie

sin song
sin bikéet¬'óól song root, essential elements of a song
biyiin his song
ataa¬ to sing
hashtaa¬ I will sing
s¶¶¬ with song
s¶¶¬ naalnish he sings as he works
n'dish'a to go about singing
dahodíítaa¬ let's sing
dinéjí dahodíítaa¬ let's sing in Navajo
dinék'éhgo let's sing in Navajo
dinék'éhjígo let's sing in Navajo
á'aah¬iijí' da' hodíítaa¬ start singing together
nizhónígo hotaa¬ you sing well
yéego wótaa¬ sing louder
ahótaa¬ nizhóníy' keep singing, you're doing well
ha'dish'aah or di'dish'aah to begin a song
¬áá'ii one
naaki two
táá' three
dªª' four
ni'íhaa¬ you play the drum
yoozílí or yoo'diits'a' harness bell or dancing bell
yoo' yíchaaí small tinkling bell
yoo' diits'a' bell
yoo' diits'a'í bell ringer
ni' yoo' iichaaí binaniní you play the bells
ásaa' drum
ásaa' bee yilt™zhí drumstick
ashxaa’ drummer
dilní wind instrument
ts'is flute
lóól sound made by flute
adish¬ool to play a flute
agháᬠceremonial rattle
nahashch'id agháᬠbadger rattle
ayání agháᬠbuffalo rattle
adee' or agháᬠnimazígíí gourd rattle
akéshgaan or akéshg™™ agháᬠhoof rattle
aka¬ agháᬠleather or rawhide rattle
atsá¬eeh opening songs of a ceremony
at¬'aanáályéél biyiin concluding songs of a ceremony
hataa’ professional singer, medicine man
akéé' nagháii assistant to the singer
hashtaa¬ biniiyé níyá I have come to sing
bí'díl'a' to be sung about (at the war dance)
yí'dí¬'a' he is singing a song
shí'dí¬'a' he is singing about me
sin bee hashtaa¬ I'm going to sing a song
í'dísh'a' to be humming a song
yishk'aash to sing in high pitched voice
deik'aash they (3 or more) are singing
hastoi deik'aash, sáanii deik'aash, á¬chíní deik'aash
deik'aash refers to the secular style of singing
dahataa¬ they (3 or more) are singing
singing in school, church, or practice for a program
ashkii hataa¬ the boy is singing
at'ééd hataa¬ the girl is singing
a¬chíní hataa¬ the 2 children are singing
a¬chíní dahataa¬ the (3 or more) children are singing
bik'i'hatáᬠto have a ceremonial sing
ha'dish'aah to burst out in song
bi'niishk'aash to start to sing at a high pitch
nihonishtaa¬ to stop singing, to bring it to a close

Introduction: Flute Interpretations, R. Howard
Traditional Flute
Ceremonial Yeibichei
Civic Rose Hill Group
Social, Enemy Way Men's Fancy Dance
Traditional Work Song Shinanit'a'í Da Nílªª
Traditional melody and text for children, seasonal
Ch'ishiibeezhii
Traditional melody and text for children, non-seasonal
Tééldzíbáhí
Transitional Sharon Burch
Traditional melody with new text for children
T'óó Nizhónígo O¬ta'
Traditional style with new melody and text Hást't¬izhii
Traditional style with code-switching 49er Song
Traditional version of non-Indian melody with new text
Tsªª¬go Aad§§ ChidíltsoíYilwo¬ (She'll be coming around the mountain)
Traditional version of non-Indian melody, translated text
Ch'íshiibeezhii T'óó Nizhóníyee'
Contemporary with Navajo Language Awee' Nizhónígo
Progressive My Indian Car
Contemporary Indian in English My Indian Car
Indian styles integrated with non-traditional instruments
Ceremonial song + synthezizer
Minimum Indian styles in pop music Pow wows, oil wells...
Translations Amazing Grace
Non-Indian music translated into Indian language
Joy to the World
Referent Késhmish in Navajoland
Indian themes in non-Indian music Tomahawk Hill

Roy E. Howard, Ph.D.
Gallup Graduate Studies Center, Western New Mexico University
e-mail | Vita