Roy E. Howard, Ph.D.
Gallup
Graduate Studies Center, Western
New Mexico University
e-mail
| Vita
A study was done of the methods of instruction of a tutor of English
as a Second Language to elementary students In grades Kindergarten
to fifth grade in an urban public school in the Southwest during
1986-87. The sixteen students in the study were all recent immigrants
from Mexico or Colombia. The instruction was bilingual to the
extent that the students and the teacher spoke Spanish when needed.
The target language, English, was used whenever possible. No general
music teacher is assigned to the school, yet the children were
enthused about musical activity. Many teachers fear that time
taken for music instruction or musical activity might take away
from the main objectives of the class. This study shows that instruction
using a creative musical method sustains, and in some cases improves
achievement, progress, or language in the classroom.
INTRODUCTION
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The medium of instruction in the school is English. Some students
in the school speak little or no English because they have recently
immigrated with their families from other countries. These students
cannot fully benefit from instruction, materials or participation
in the class until their fluency with oral and written English
matches that of their classmates. On the other hand, the classroom
environment does not provide them many opportunities in oral and
written language that is comprehensible or on their developmental
level, so they are caught in a "vicious circle": A lack
of English language skill slows their participation and their
lack of participation slows their acquisition of English language
skills.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study was to develop and test a method of
language instruction employing music, to determine whether it
would promote the use of language by students who are limited
in English proficiency. The data report.d compares the level of
language use between groups involved in a creative language experience,
and total physical response method with and without musical activity.
PRINCIPLES OF SECOND LANGUAGE AND SECOND CULTURE LEARNING
Many researchers have concluded that affective domain factors
such as attitude, motivation and personal involvement can have
more impact in the learning of a second language and culture than
cognitive factors. Stephen Krashen teaches that studying the rules
of a grammar can be useful to an individual in monitoring language
use, but that most fluency in production is based on active communication
over time (Krashen, 1981). Affective domain experiences are shown
to be more effective in producing positive attitudes towards another
language and culture than cognitive learning (Furuto and Furuto,
1993). The Total Physical Response (TPR) method of language teaching
described by James Asher is one way to put active and affective
factors into language learning (Lucero and Herrmann-Hart., no
date). The process of TPR instruction involves the drilling of
certain commands to students over a period of time without requiring
the students to respond, produce, memorize, or test. This allows
them to learn receptively in a stress-free environment until they
are ready to produce the language. This principle is based on
first language learning styles. Schafir (1976) advocates affective
student involvement in language through musical activity and student
musical composition. Lionel (1977) adds that arts education such
as music benefits students in various ways including the transfer
of skills, alternative learning styles, and through artistic modes
for learning other subjects.
For the purposes of this study, it was assumed that the students
were receiving an emphasis in the grammar and basics of language
in the regular classroom. The tutorial sessions were designed
to emphasize the attitude and activity factors of language learning
as taught by Krashen, Asher and Furuto. Musical activity was considered
to be a viable method for this instruction as suggested by Lionel
and Schafer.
BECOMING ACCULTURATED
The musical method used in the study was considered as way to
teach language and culture skills to students of each level of
English acquisition mentioned in the school district philosophy.
The philosophy for teaching limited English proficient (LEP) students
includes a three-level needs hierarchy (Basic Survival Skills,
1980):
Basic skills for students with limited or no English language
includes learning and adjusting to the new language and school
setting. The methods for this level are based on humanistic strategies
in that the teacher should recognize and incorporate the cultural
differences of the students in a multicultural curriculum. It
provides the vocabulary and .experiences necessary for the student
to function in the classroom successfully as soon as possible.
English as a Second Language (ESL), provides in-depth and sequential
learning activities for the development of English language skills
to prepare a student to become a full participant in the total
school program.
The third category is designed to serve the bilingual students
who are underachieving, giving them developmental help and establishing
a multicultural dimension to the entire curriculum.
Music was determined to be appropriate as a medium in this case,
because music is a multicultural education .
"Music is a universal medium of expression for the deepest
feelings and aspirations that belong to all humanity. Musical
experience extends the means of expression, the vocabulary, the
appreciation of diversity and similarity, the ability to participate
with a group, an appreciation for the interrelatedness of the
arts,intellectual stimulus, tolerance and respect" (Dodds,
1983).
An individual studying a new language and culture needs to be
flexible and adjust to many new wars of thinking. Learning various
styles of music leads to the development of musical flexibility
involving cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain areas (Anderson,
1983). This flexibility enhances the ability to not only perform
and listen to new music, but by transfer of skills, to be receptive
to new ideas and ways of thinking in perhaps any subject. Multicultural
musical experiences help alter attitudes toward diversity and
increased acceptance of differences in ethnic traditions.
O'Brien (1996) used music in instruction "to help counteract
the limiting forces of social and cultural determinances by presenting
students with new types of music to which students reacted affectively,
intellectually and kinesthetically in an engrossing way leading
to personal satisfaction." When students interact with the
medium of instruction in this way, the experience becomes personally
valuable and positive attitudes are formed.
WHY TEACH MUSICAL STYLES OF THE TARGET CULTURE
Styles of music that are traditional or "folk" may be
particularly appropriate for helping students get oriented to
the deep structure of a culture and its language. Music and song
teach more than vocabulary because particular contours, habitual
vocal techniques, and language or dialect related rhythms represent
the distinctive sounds of the heritage of the music and the heritage
of the culture (Shapiro, 1995). The multicultural nature of the
United States is reflected in its folk music. Regional traits
of our immigrant nation persist and influence new music across
generations of change and even through the transplantation and
intermingling of cultures. "The chief function of song is
to express the shared feelings and mold the joint activities of
some human community" (Lomax, 1968). The philosopher and
aesthetist Suzanne Langer further asserts that art forms preferred
by an individual not only bespeak his very cultural makeup but
that the acceptance of new forms can change attitudes and prepare
one for a new cultural experience (Langer, 1958).
Music exists within a cultural context, and can reflect that social
context in various ways. Music may help to shape attitudes, values
and perspectives in the sense that people of almost all societies
learn something external to the music sound from the music they
experience (Johnson, 1994). Music is an integral part of the process
of socialization, including the transmission to each generation
of values, beliefs, and social behaviors (Robertson, 1984). Therefore,
it is assumed that participation in musical activity can be useful
in educating LEP students to American culture.
WHY TEACH THE MUSICAL STYLES OF THE HOME CULTURE
Research In second culture learning shows that it is important
for the learner to maintain a sense of original identity. In order
to instill a sense of pride and identity and understanding of
one's own cultural background, curriculums should include music
from the cultural heritage of each student, especially the folk
traditions. An intimacy with folk songs, words, styles and instruments
gives the students subtle clues and insights into language, land,
heritage and values (Fletz, 1975).
TRANSFER OF SKILLS
In spite of the overwhelming evidence that music in instruction
can add significantly to the learning of students, many teachers
do not use it. They are afraid that time spent in music would
be time taken away from learning "the basics". However,
many studies show that there is no retardation in achievement
in reading, creative thinking, GPA, or any other school skill
for students who are excused from regular classroom activities
for the study of music compared to students not studying music.
In fact, many basic skills are enhanced by the study of music
(Hanshumaker, 1990). Music should be a topic of instruction as
well as a medium of instruction for all the students.
ALTERNATIVE COGNITIVE STYLE OF LEARNING
Many writers emphasize the multifaceted value of music and the
arts in education. Wilson (1985) calls musical study a unique
and complete way to blend scientific, artistic and physical disciplines
in a way that fortifies natural curiosity and leads to a refinement
in physical and mental ability. Bennett (1996) advocates the value
of musical strategies in multicultural education to address the
issue of variant learning styles. Keil (1984) shows that all of
us can become more aware of our own various layers of cultural
identity by the study of traditional styles of music.
ARTISTIC MODES FOR LEARNING OTHER SUBJECTS
Musical and artistic approaches can help students use more creative
language. Landon (1983) describes a project in California based
on the liberal use of professional artists, performances and local
arts resources such as art, drama, dance and music. These are
used in conjunction with oral and written language. All the students
receive an in-depth exposure to the arts as individual disciplines
and use them as an important means of reinforcing and motivating
basic skills in other areas of the curriculum. Test scores in
language arts showed that children were becoming more aware, understanding
and appreciative of their own as well as the arts expression of
others and could communicate this in creative writing of increasing
accuracy and insight.
Mahoney (1983) had great success in teaching special education
students with a creative musical approach similar to the one used
in this study. She concluded that creative involvement promotes
simultaneous cognitive and affective growth, that creative endeavors
are ultimately more engaging than traditional kinds of cognitive
learning, that creative behavior is not dependent on higher levels
of cognitive functioning, that the creative musical environment
in vocal music produces gains in confidence, and produces a positive
effect on language production and content.
METHOD OF RESEARCH
CONTROLS
Environment
The study was conducted with sixteen students in six groups. Each
group contained two or three members. Ten of the students began
working with the teacher in the fall semester. Six others began
in January. The period of the study began on February 12 and ended
Nay 15 with meetings about three days per week. The groups who
started with no English skills (groups E, D, and F), sometimes
met for extra help in the afternoon in addition to the morning.
Groups A, C, and D were randomly selected for the non-musical
effect the (control groups) also called in the study the "TPR"
groups. Groups B, E, and F were randomly selected to receive the
musical effect, also called in the study the "music"
groups.
There was no change in the study locations or methods during the
study. Most classes were thirty minute sessions held around a
table in the equipment storage/workroom of the library. Other
sessions were held in the school computer lab, in the library,
on the playground, at the park or walking around the school grounds.
The library workroom proved to be a fruitful environment for language
activity in several ways. Students were encouraged to talk to
or about the teachers who came in for equipment or to use a machine.
The interesting items in the room were topics of discussion. For
example, the parent-faculty club chocolate bar sale was centered
in the room for a few weeks. The hundreds of cases of chocolate
bars stimulated arithmetic as well as language and musical activities.
Control of Methodology
The same teacher used the same creative methods for all groups,
including an emphasis on total physical response rather than translation
to teach vocabulary, student story telling as a basis for the
written activities (language experience), and the seeking of opportunities
to interact with the physical and social environment. The only
difference was that the effect groups participated musically by
singing, adapting their writings to music and listening to music.
All students had been exposed to this musical method prior to
the study.
Classes cut short by special programs, parent visits, absence,
field trips, etc. were included in the totals assuming that the
ratios of language level would be equivalent irregardless of the
time period for each session. Total language raw scores therefore,
are not used for comparisons.
Language of Choice
The teacher spoke in English as much as possible. Students were
not restricted in their choice of language. High language scores
by the limited English students were achieved because they were
allowed to respond in Spanish whenever they needed to. Class session
observation scores give equal value to student language in English
or Spanish. Only the final assessment gives a higher score to
English. Krashen (1981) reports that the developmental process
of a second language learner includes a lengthy "receptive"
period in which they are learning to hear and understand before
being able to produce. Suina (1982) reports that students taught
in their own language will participate in class with a higher
quality of sentence structure, both in English as well as in the
home language.
The teacher believed that the assessment would be based on amount
or increase of English skill. The determination to score the groups
by amount and level of language used during each class session
was not made until after the sessions ended. This fact increases
the internal validity of the research methodology because it avoids
bias in teaching. The counting of the language is based on actual
taped sessions, it is not arbitrary or judgmental. The tapes were
listened to during consecutive days after the sessions were over
to insure consistency in style and format of reporting the data.
ASSIGNMENT TO EFFECT
A data base computer program was used to record the sixteen students'
names by identification number, grade in school and level of English
proficiency (see attachment one). Three of the six groups were
assigned to the effect using a table of random numbers. One student
achieved the highest level of the assessment instrument in the
preassessment, so no score was given for growth. Student E15 moved
from a musical to a non-musical group after one week because of
compatibility and because the group she moved into had lost two
students who moved out of town.
MEASUREMENTS
Hierarchy of Student Language Production
Based on the methodology of a similar bilingual study (Suina,
1982), representative language samples of students in class were
recorded on audio tape and scored on a hierarchy of language level
ranging from no response to responses with complete ideas (Attachment
2). This resulted in data for:
No response: number of instances that students did not respond
to a question by the teacher shown as a percentage of the total
language production of the students
Categories of On-task Response:
Yes/no. includes "yes", "no", "I don't
know", as well as the performance of an act in response to
the teacher such as writing, pointing, or acting out
One-two: includes oral responses of only one or two words
Phrase: Includes oral responses consisting of a complete phrase
or sentence
Off-task Language: includes all categories of language that change
the subject, occur between students off the topic, or otherwise
exclude the teacher or the lesson; this category is included in
the total student language score
Teacher Language: records all categories of language used by the
teacher (yes/no, one-two, phrase) including each sentence of a
story and each phrase of a song
Ratio: indicates the ratio of teacher to student language production,
a score lower than 100% means that the student language production
was higher than the teacher language production.
Anecdotal Descriptions
A description of the methods and the resultant interactions were
recorded in log form for each group by date of observation. Samples
of student work and a book of stories and songs generated are
available. A series of audio tapes are available for many of the
sessions. A separate demonstration tape of musical examples has
been prepared.
Final Assessment of English Language Skills
A recommended by Rodrigues and White (1981) a final assessment
of English language skills was done by oral interview. Students
were asked to respond to questions concerning four pictures depicting
a kitchen scene, a school playground, a family scene, and a street
scene. The test is from the Rainbow Collection (Alvarez-Nartini,
et al, 1984). The method is based on principles of acquisition
vs. learning, natural order, monitor theory, comprehensible input,
affective filter and total physical response taught by leading
authorities in teaching English as a second language including
Krashen, Asher and Terrell. Questions progress from simple to
more complex on a four point scale: pre-production, early production,
speech emergence and intermediate fluency. Student responses for
each question were scored by level: 0- wrong or no answer, 1-
wrong answer but shows some understanding of the question, 2-
answered in Spanish or by actions such as pointing or acting out,
3- short answer such as one or two words, 4- complete answer such
as a phrase or sentence.
Gain
The final assessment was analyzed and the students scores were
subjectively interpreted to designate their language category
as being 1- pre-production, 2- early production, 3- speech emergence,
or 4- intermediate fluency. The score for "gain" was
calculated by comparing each student's preassessment score with
their final score.
HYPOTHESES
Null Hypothesis. there is no difference in student language production
based on whether or not students participate in musical methods
Alternative Hypotheses. for the students participating in the
musical method-
H1: quality of language production will increase in the hierarchy
H2: Failures to respond will decrease
H3: Off task language will decrease
H4: Teacher to student ratio of language will decrease
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Hypothesis One: quality of language production will increase
in the hierarchy with the music effect.
Attachment two shows that all the music groups and all the non-music
groups (TPR) had a gradually higher percentage of the higher levels
of language production during the class sessions. The music groups
had the highest average percentage of the highest level, "phrase
or' sentence", 55% compared to the TPR groups' 47%. The TPR
groups percentages for this category are: 29%, 51%, 52%. The music
group percentages are: 48%, 51%, 72%. This data seems to support
hypothesis one.
Hypothesis Two: failures to respond will decrease with the music
effect.
Attachment two shows that all groups had a low rate of no response.
The music groups had the lowest average rate, 2.55% compared to
the TPR groups, 4.04%. The TPR groups percentages for this category
are: 1%, 3%, lO%, with student C5 being the least responsive.
The music groups percentages are: 0.2%, 2%, 5%, with student FlO
being the least responsive. This data seems to support hypothesis
two.
The fact that the music groups did well in level of language production
and were low in failures to respond speaks well for the method.
The contention of the researchers previously mentioned that activities
in the affective domain foster language use seems to be supported.
Hypothesis Three: off task language will decrease with the music
effect.
Attachment two shows that off task responses by the music groups
were the highest, lO% compared to the TPR groups, 3%. The TPR
groups percentages for this category are: 0.3%, 3.0%., 4.0%. The
music group percentages for this category are: 0.9%, 5.0%, 18.0%.
The older students were the most likely to make off-task remarks,
irregardless of the method. This data seems to not support hypothesis
three.
The higher incidence of off task language with the musical activity
groups may be due to the teacher's need to pay attention to his
own tasks of writing or performing music. A teacher who attempts
such a method a large part of a class period must feel secure
in the skills of music and lyric writing and be willing to accept
a higher percentage of off task behavior due to the high levels
of enthusiasm that are generated.
Hypothesis Four: the teacher to student ratio of language will
decrease with the music effect.
Attachment two shows that the lowest ratio occurs with the TPR
groups, 84% compared with 93% for the music groups. The TPR groups
percentages for this category are: 69%, 70%, 135%. The music group
percentages are: 80%, 86%, 117%. The exceptional group in TPR
(135%) were kindergarten students. The exceptional group in music
(117%) were first grade students. In fact, the ratio seems to
vary more by grade level and English language level than by method.
This data seems to not support hypothesis four.
The higher ratio of teacher to student language in the musical
method may be affected by the fact that the teacher sings with
the students after modeling for them. Another factor may have
to do with the teacher's attention to the instrument (guitar)
and the song rather than to the student's involvement. The fact
that the method still resulted in more student than teacher language
speaks well for the method.
Other Findings
Attachment three, "Final Assessment of Each Student",
shows that music students' final scores on an English test (2.6)
are higher than the TPR students' scores (2.2). The higher scores
are especially significant in the three higher levels of language,
"Early Production", "Speech Emergence", and
"Intermediate Fluency". Music, 2.9, 2.7 and 2.0 vs.
TPR, 2.2, 2.2 and 1.6. This seems to further support hypothesis
one that quality of language production would increase in the
hierarchy with the music effect. However, the preassessment was
not as thoroughly reported as the postassesment so the reliability
of the reported gain for the period of the effect may be questionable.
IMPLICATIONS FOR CLASSROOM TEACHERS
Full Classroom Vs. Small Group
The instructional groups in this study were never larger than
three or four students. However, teachers who use music in a classroom
setting also report positive results. The author of this study
found that a musical approach worked well in Navajo bilingual
classrooms over a three year period though music was not used
as extensively as with the tutorial groups of this study.
Use of Music With Different Types of Students
With Second Language Learners
Musical activity promotes values and skills that are useful to
second language learners. Teachers should consider using music
representative of the target culture to teach attitudes, language,
values and skills and using music of the home culture to reinforce
positive self concepts and a sense of heritage.
With All the Students
Music is not only useful for teaching multicultural concepts and
values to all the students, but can be used to teach content concepts
in all the subjects. For a summary of skills that teachers would
need to learn in order to use this method, see attachment four,
"How to Write Music and Involve Children in Language Activity".
QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
Do the tapes show other factors of classroom dynamics such as
laughter or degree of two language use?
Motivation by age group: It seems logical that the older students
would have a more mature perspective regarding the need to learn
the language of the school. However, the older students do not
learn as fast as the younger nor seem as motivated to learn. This
might be explained by Krashen's "affective filter",
and "language acquisition device" theories that argue
for the benefits of learning a language as young as possible.
It would be interesting to analyze the data further from this
study to see if the musical method might break down the affective
filter of the older students and help them learn.
A comparison of the data with the narrative might show which types
of lessons were the most effective in producing high language
levels and high language production.
RECOMMENDATIONS
An appropriate second language curriculum respects each student's
language and culture, adds a multicultural dimension to the entire
curriculum, teaches skills of English to prepare a student for
full participation in the total school program, and keeps a student
current with grade level content by using the home language as
needed.
It is appropriate to use musical strategies in second language
and second culture instruction. Folk styles are particularly useful
because they comprehend the values and historical structures of
a society. Styles of the target as well as the home culture are
appropriate. Musical methods can be used by classroom teachers
as well as outside resource people.
Second language learners should be allowed opportunities for academic
growth even during their "receptive period" before they
are fluent in the new language. This type of student benefits
when he can respond to the teacher in his own language.
A teacher desiring to teach through creative musical methods should
acquire skills of song and lyric writing and song accompaniment
and may need to be willing to accept a higher percentage of student
off task behavior due to the high levels of enthusiasm generated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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and Tracy David Terrell. The Rainbow Collection. Northvale,
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| Attachment 1 | ||||||
| ESL Music Roster | ||||||
| case | group | I.D. | Nm. | Grade | Level | date start |
| music | b | 3 | J | 2 | C | 9/24/85 |
| music | b | 12 | E | 3 | D | 1/16/86 |
| music | b | 13 | A | 2 | C | 1/16/86 |
| music | e | 9 | J | 5 | A | 9/3/85 |
| music | e | 8 | C | 4 | A | 9/10/85 |
| music | e | 15 | A | 5 | A | 1/20/86 |
| music | f | 10 | A | 2 | A | 9/17/85 |
| music | f | 14 | G | 1 | C | 1/16/86 |
| tpr | a | 6 | J | 1 | B | 9/10/85 |
| tpr | a | 1 | R | 1 | B | 9/26/85 |
| tpr | a | 2 | F | 1 | B | 9/10/85 |
| tpr | c | 4 | Y | K | C | 11/11/85 |
| tpr | c | 5 | J | K | A | 9/16/85 |
| tpr | d | 7 | K | 2 | A | 9/16/85 |
| tpr | d | 11 | M | 3 | A | 1/6/86 |
| tpr | d | 16 | W | 3 | A | 1/20/86 |
| Attachment 2 | ||||||||||
| ESL Data for All Groups: Summary by Effect | ||||||||||
| Action, yes/no, | ||||||||||
| No response | don't know, or | one or two | phrase or | Extra | ||||||
| Group | when asked | point | words | sentence | Comments | |||||
| TPR | ||||||||||
| Group A | 12 | 1.04% | 90 | 8.00% | 427 | 37.00% | 602 | 52.00% | 38 | 3.00% |
| Group C | 96 | 10.00% | 267 | 28.00% | 412 | 43.00% | 285 | 29.00% | 3 | 0.31% |
| Group D | 69 | 3.00% | 273 | 12.00% | 739 | 33.00% | 1155 | 51.00% | 92 | 4.00% |
| TPR Totals | 177 | 4.04% | 630 | 14.00% | 1578 | 36.00% | 2042 | 47.00% | 133 | 3.00% |
| Music | ||||||||||
| Group B | 2 | 0.20% | 77 | 8.00% | 197 | 20.00% | 717 | 72.00% | 9 | 0.90% |
| Group E | 40 | 2.00% | 148 | 8.00% | 446 | 23.00% | 1000 | 51.00% | 361 | 18.00% |
| Group F | 66 | 5.00% | 298 | 23.00% | 310 | 24.00% | 609 | 48.00% | 59 | 5.00% |
| Music Totals | 108 | 2.55% | 523 | 12.00% | 953 | 23.00% | 2326 | 55.00% | 429 | 10.00% |
| Teach | Student | Student/Tchr |
| Language | Total | Language Ratio |
| TPR Group | ||
| 812 | 1157 | 70% |
| 1303 | 967 | 135% |
| 1569 | 2259 | 69% |
| 3684 | 4383 | 84% |
| Music Group | ||
| 858 | 1000 | 86% |
| 1559 | 1955 | 80% |
| 1497 | 1276 | 117% |
| 3914 | 4231 | 93% |
Roy E. Howard, Ph.D.
Gallup
Graduate Studies Center, Western
New Mexico University
e-mail
| Vita